BY TRAILOKYA JENA
For an Odiya to be in Bali during the course of Bali Jatra back home is making a full circle in history. Bali Jatra is an annual celebration of sea faring Odiya traders undertaken both sides of the Christian Era as reminder of our roaring trade in Indonesian archipelago. I had always longed, since my school days, to be in Indonesia, particularly in Bali, during the Kartik Purnima week to feel the history of our sea faring enterprise from the other side.
After the anxieties over uncertainties of flight operations to Bali following eruptions of nearby volcanoes, it was a great sense of elation landing there. Immediately one got the sense of being in a mini India as the landscape, the people, the route and the landmarks conveyed feeling of home. To explore this sense of déjà vu, one must travel through the history of this island to trace our connection.
Trade and Early Contact
Indian traders arrived in the Indonesian archipelago, including Bali, as early as the 1st century. They established trading routes and cultural exchange points, particularly in Sumatra and Java. Our Odiya traders used to start on the Purnima that brings favourable wind, the occasion we celebrate by floating replica boats in water. Indian traders brought with them elements of Hinduism and Buddhism leading to the early adoption of Hindu and Buddhist iconography, social customs, and Sanskrit inscriptions. Soon these influences extended to Bali, where Sanskrit inscriptions have been found, signifying the early spread of Hindu religious ideas and practices.
Balinese Adaptation of Hinduism
Early Hindu practices in Bali were adapted to local animistic and ancestor-worshipping beliefs, creating a unique blend of Hindu-Balinese spirituality that differed from Indian Hinduism. However, these early influences were relatively limited in scope and did not establish the full framework of Hindu culture in Bali. We shall be discussing this later.
Majapahit Conquest
The Majapahit Empire in Java, particularly under the leadership of Gajah Mada, launched a series of conquests throughout the archipelago, including Bali. In 1343, the Majapahit forces formally conquered Bali, bringing with them a stronger and more structured form of Hinduism and Javanese culture. This conquest established Bali as a vassal state of the Majapahit Empire and led to increased immigration of Javanese Hindu nobles, priests, artists, and intellectuals to Bali.
Exodus of Hindu-Javanese Elites
As Islam spread in Java in the 16th century, particularly with the rise of the Demak Sultanate, a large-scale migration of Hindu-Javanese elites, including royal families, priests, artists, and scholars, occurred. These individuals sought refuge in Bali, bringing with them advanced practices of Hinduism further influencing Balinese culture. The result was a deepening of Hindu rituals, social structures, and art forms, with Bali becoming a sanctuary for the preservation of Majapahit Hindu identity. However, this dominant Hindu kingdom in East Java, began to decline in the early 16th century as Islam gained influence. By 1520, Islamic sultanates replaced Hindu dynasties across Java, pushing Hindu nobles, priests, artists, and warriors to Bali. Many sought to preserve their religious, artistic, and cultural practices, seeing Bali as a safe haven for their Hindu traditions.
Formation of Balinese Hinduism
Gradual integration of India style Hinduism with structured practices of the Majapahit Hindu-Javanese form created the unique Agama Hindu Dharma practised in Bali. This version of Hinduism adapted Indian deities, Javanese philosophical principles, and local Balinese animistic practices into a cohesive system.While Indian traders introduced Hindu elements to Bali, the Majapahit Empire’s conquest and subsequent Hindu-Javanese migrations were crucial in establishing a more organized and culturally pervasive form of Hinduism. While the spread of Islam in Java nearly eradicated Hindu practices there, Bali preserved its unique “Agama Hindu Dharma” tradition. This religion, distinct from Indian Hinduism, integrated local animistic beliefs, reverence for nature, and ancestor worship, which remain central to Balinese life today.
Resilience of Balinese Identity The migration from Java allowed Bali to become last stronghold of the Majapahit legacy imbuing Balinese culture with a sense of historical pride and spiritual heritage. The caste system and religious traditions established by the Hindu-Javanese continue to shape Balinese society, temple rituals, and village governance, making Bali an exceptional case in the Indonesian archipelago. This significant period remains vital in understanding Bali’s religious practices, social structure, and its lasting role as a center of Hindu culture within Indonesia. We shall discuss the religious tradition and worship culture as it survives today later
Colonial Expansion and its Impact on Bali
The Dutch began their expansion into the Indonesian archipelago in the early 17th century, initially focused on controlling Java and the Spice Islands (Maluku) for their valuable resources, particularly spices. Subsequently, the Dutch East India Company,and later the Dutch government, consolidated control over Java and other territories transforming these islands into Dutch East Indies.
Bali, however, remained independent well into the 19th century due to its isolated position and the fierce spirit of local kingdoms. The Dutch initially took control of key northern territories like Sumatra and Sulawesi before turning their full attention to Bali. In the 1840s, the Dutch began military campaigns in Bali, ultimately expanding their reach to the island’s north.
Dutch Influence in Bali
Bali became an official part of the Dutch East Indies in the early 1900s after a series of military conflicts. Unlike other parts of Indonesia, where the Dutch imposed strict colonial rules, they chose a relatively hands-off approach in Bali, emphasizing cultural preservation over direct control. The Dutch promoted Bali as a “living museum” of Hindu-Javanese traditions, leading to a paradox where they colonized the island but also encouraged the preservation of its unique customs, dance, and architecture.
By the early 20th century, the Dutch aimed to gain full control of Bali. Resistance to colonial rule culminated in the tragic Puputan (meaning “fight to the end”), where Balinese royal families and soldiers resisted by staging ritual mass suicides rather than surrendering to Dutch forces. The first Puputan took place in Badung (Denpasar) in 1906, and a second major Puputan followed in Klungkung in 1908. These events, symbolizing sacrifice and defiance, were instrumental in shaping Balinese identity and are widely commemorated in Bali today. Following these incidents, the Dutch established administrative control but maintained a degree of cultural respect, recognising Bali’s unique Hindu traditions and autonomy in cultural practices
Struggle for Independence
Despite Dutch efforts to rule indirectly, Balinese kings resisted colonial control. This resistance culminated in two major events known as the Puputan (“fight to the death”), where Balinese royals, nobles, and warriors performed ritual suicides rather than surrender to Dutch forces. The first Puputan occurred in Badung (Denpasar) in 1906, and a second took place in Klungkung in 1908. These events became highly symbolic of Balinese resilience and honor in the face of colonial aggression. Following these tragic episodes, the Dutch gained full control over Bali but maintained a level of cultural respect that preserved traditional practices and Hindu rites.
In 1942, Japan invaded Bali as part of its broader WW-II campaign in the Asia-Pacific. The Japanese occupation disrupted Dutch rule across Indonesia, including Bali, where Japanese forces imposed strict control and influenced local nationalist sentiments. The Japanese occupation was brief, but it had lasting effects, as it weakened Dutch control and heightened Indonesian aspirations for independence. Japanese forces surrendered in 1945, and on August 17, 1945, Indonesia declared independence.
The post-war years were marked by fierce struggles between Indonesian nationalists and Dutch forces attempting to regain control. In Bali, one of the most significant acts of resistance occurred at the Puputan Margarana in 1946. Led by the Balinese hero I Gusti Ngurah Rai, local forces engaged in a final, symbolic stand against Dutch troops. This event, like the earlier Puputans, underscored Bali’s determination to resist foreign domination.
By 1949, international pressure and the Indonesian National Revolution forced the Netherlands to formally recognize Indonesia’s independence. Bali became part of the Republic of Indonesia, and it was fully integrated into the nation as a province in 1958.
Evolution of Tourism in Bali
German photographer Gregor Krause’s images of Bali in 1912 sparked Western fascination as his work portrayed its unique culture and landscape, setting the stage for early tourism. The Dutch colonial administration began promoting Bali as an exotic destination, especially focusing on the northern region of Singaraja.
Later in 1930s artists and writers like Walter Spies and Miguel Covarrubias arrived in Bali. Intrigued by its culture, Spies, a German painter, documented Balinese life and nature in his works, influencing perceptions of Bali as an artistic haven. His collaborations with anthropologist Margaret Mead and painter Rudolf Bonnet helped establish Ubud as a center for art and culture. However, it was Charlie Chaplin’s visit to Bali, during a trip across Asia in 1932, that captured international imagination to this mystical island. Chaplin’s accounts and admiration for Balinese culture further heightened Bali’s allure as a remote paradise, drawing travellers with an interest in its arts and anthropology.
After Indonesian independence, President Sukarno promoted Bali as a cultural showpiece of Indonesia, encouraging tourism to showcase national heritage. But limited infrastructure kept tourism growth to minimum which was again impacted by the eruption of Mount Agung, Bali’s sacred volcano, causing further decline in tourism. With the completion of an airport at Densapar in 1969, Bali finally established itself firmly as a premier tourist destination in the world.
Julia Roberts and Bali Today
Bali’s journey is one of resilience, adaptation, and cultural preservation. From ancient roots and colonial resistance to embracing tourism and modern challenges, the Balinese people remain deeply connected to their traditions. Today, Bali still stands as a beacon of culture, spirituality, and natural beauty, facing the challenge of balancing modernity with its rich heritage. In recent times, the journey of Julia Roberts and her life changing experiences here catapulted Bali to a next level destination. Who doesn’t remember Julia Roberts walking down the streets of Ubud, cycling through the paddy fields, visiting Ubud Market and seeing a Balinese medicine man in the movie “Eat, Pray, Love” in her search for balance and harmony? It’s here in Bali that she finally embraced Hinduism and started an international trend for pursuit of Hindu values and way of life. Bali thus firmly established itself as a valued Hindu outpost.
Temple Culture of Bali
Balinese Hindu practices are centred around its typical hierarchy of temples. The temples here are elaborately built in the traditional temple architecture styles of India. The facade is patterned on South Indian style of elevation while the organisation of clusters closely resembles that of Odisha’s. Each house in Bali has some sort of temple designs placed in front of houses with sizeable, massive in cases of prosperous houses, statues of Hindu gods and animals signifying religious symbols associated with individual gods and goddesses placed strategically around houses.There are ubiquitous shops selling thousands of stone engravings of deities and their favourite animals spread over the island. One can see the predominant influence of Odisha stone carvings on such statues as also in the craft works in wood, textiles and various grasses and leaves.
The temples in Bali are of four types, public temple, village temple, functional temple and personal temple. While personal temples are understandably private in nature placed and worshipped in individual houses, the public temples belong to and maintained exclusively by the State. The most visited and stunningly located Uluwatu Temple is a public temple located at the southern tip of the island, almost on a cliff overlooking breathtaking spread of the sea on three sides.
The third and most common types are Village Temples which are located at convenient sites to be accessed by nearby inhabitation. Villages take turn to perform rituals in such temples as a particular village is required to provide offerings on a given day where it’d invite representatives from nearby villages to attend the feast. We happened to visit one such village temple where a feast was given along with offerings to gods. Its performance can be observed from accompanying photographs.
The fourth and last type is called functional temples. Such temples are not village or deity based, but on particular profession or vocation. For example, students worship at Saraswati temple, Fishermen worship the sea god Varun at his designated temple, the farmers give offerings to their own gods for harvest while the trades people from markets have their own temple to worship gods looking after their welfare..
What’s is distinctive in Bali is temples are not functional on a daily basis as worship or puja takes place only on designated days. These occasions fall once in a quarter or half year and is generally linked to the lunar cycle, certain day or days after the full or new moons. Hindus constitute almost 85% of Bali’s population while around 9% are muslims, 4% are Christians and the rest Buddhist and others. It’s the measure of Balinese amalgamation of Agama Hindu tradition of Bali that the entire population believe in the trinity of gods, Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshwar, and share the way of life decreed by the three gods. There is complete cultural harmony across faiths where the muslims too believe in the pantheon of Hindu trinity and accept them as presiding deities of the island. People of all faiths are allowed to the temple premises. Our driver Sudarma Mohammed was our spiritual guide who explained each nitty gritty of the Bali hinduism. Most of the people from other faith keep hindu names and puts auspicious hindu rangoli and clothes most prominently as a daily ritual. There lies the strength of Indonesia, the most populous Muslim country adoring Hindu names and symbols.
(Mr. Jena is former Chief Commissioner Income Tax )
